Summary about chapter 1 and 2

 Name: Sarwan Hamid 

Class: 3.2

Nim: 1988203041

Course: Model dan pendekatan belajar

CHAPTER II

TEACHING ELEMENTS

A.Instructional Planning

Teachers plan. Good teachers don’t simply “wing it”. Teachers have to organize their lesson plans by considering the curriculum, school resources, student motivation, student ability and other variables that will affect all instructional decisions teachers must decide before they actually teach. 

Table 2.1 Good vs Bad Lesson Plan

You are a first-year teacher in a public school. Today, you are going to be observed by one of the school administrators to be evaluated. Your class will start in a few minutes. The assessor asks you to hand over your lesson plan for this class.

Good Lesson Plan

Bad Lesson Plan

School: U-Raise Academy

Class/Semester: XI / 1

Subject: English

Aspect/Skill: Speaking

Unit Title: Expressions of relief, pain, and pleasure

Time Allocation: 2 x 40 minute (1x meeting)

Meeting: 5

Learning Objective: 75% of the total students (n=27) will be able to identify expressions of relief, pain, and pleasure, as well as using them while interacting with another person.

Teaching Model: Direct Instruction

Technique: Think-Pair-Share

Lesson Material: Expressions of relief (e.g., I am relieved that…, I thank you for…, I’m so grateful for…), pain (e.g., It hurts because…, I’m miserable due to…, I’m sad to hear that…), pleasure (e.g., It’s wonderful that…, I’m happy with…, that’s terrific!)

Learning Resources: Short videos containing expressions of relief, pain, and pleasure

Rationale: Students need to remember 

these common expressions so they can respond appropriately to different kind of situations

Syntax: (1) Teacher greets the students, led a pray, and checks their attendance, (2) Teacher explains about expressions of relief, pain, and pleasure, (3) Teacher directs students to pair up one-on-one; if there is an odd number, students may have three people in one group, (4) Teacher asks the pairs of students to create a short conversation containing expressions of relief, pain, and pleasure for them to perform in front of the class, (5) Teacher calls out three pairs of students to come forward and demonstrate their short conversations in turns, (6) Teacher provides feedback to students about their performance to improve their understanding.

Assessment: Score of 1-4 (i.e., 1 = very well, 2 = good, 3 = inadequate, 4 = very poor) on pronunciation, vocabulary, and accuracy. The formula is:

 x 100

Expressions of relief

Expressions of pain

Expressions of pleasure

Assignment

Homework

You as a teacher must have a solid lesson plan not only so you will not flounder during teaching, but also so the superior evaluating your teaching performance will have a solid idea and expectation of how you will run your class. 

Teaching is a personal endeavor, so you must plan on how you will run your class. Below is a diagram summarizing the most important variables that you must plan for:

 

The figure above presents at least a couple of questions to prompt you to consider the 7 variables in instructional planning. In doing so, you will reflect on your role as a teacher

  In the 20th century’s first half, society at large believe in behaviorism (Mayer, 1996; Reynolds, Sinatra, & Jelton, 1996), which emphasizes teachers to use certain activities to stimulate students to behave appropriately and learn the information given to them

  Overtime, education has realized students in reality actively respond to their environment based on their background knowledge, motivation, and strategies. Society now sees learning as a development of strategies to encode and retrieve information, learners as active participants who try to make sense of their environment using strategies, and teachers as partners in the process of interpreting information. This perspective is called as cognitive psychology 

  Therefore, instructional planning nowadays is based on cognitive psychology, and at the core of it is teacher thinking and teacher knowledge, which are the way you think and what you know respectively. the most fundamental question you must ask is “what is important for students to learn?”

      A.Your Topic: Curriculum and Syllabus

The lesson topics you will teach is typically already determined by the school curriculum, which is a set of standardized learning goals across grades. A curriculum is the guideline of the course/program, covering the knowledge, skill, behavior, and performance that will be taught to and expected of students. In essence, a curriculum is what an educational institution offers to students. 

      B. curriculum contains all factors involved in an educational program, and one of it is called a syllabus, which covers the portion of what topics should be taught in a subject or content area. Subject syllabus is a unit of the curriculum containing 7 primary segments: instructor data, general class data, course targets, course arrangements, grading and assessment, learning assets, and the course calendar.

    C.Your Learning Objective: Taxonomy and Task Analysis 

Teachers are not directly or solely responsible to create a school curriculum and syllabus, but you will be responsible to determine the goals of your classes. Specifying learning objectives is commonly difficult because schools generally have a broad spectrum of goals and individual teachers prioritize different things. For example, imagine this scenario of three physical exercise teachers discussing their goals:

A wants the students to develop their muscle strength and flexibility so no matter what kind of other exercises they do, they’ll have a good foundation. 

B prefers students to know many different kinds of exercises so they will be able to differentiate aerobic and anerobic exercises. 

Meanwhile C is concerned about when the students will inevitably leave school and wants students to be motivated to continue exercising for life so they will not end up as couch potatoes. 

All three of these objectives are equally important, but attempting to reach all of them for one class is nigh impossible so teachers must select on a specific learning objective. One topic could have dozens of goals, so make it easier to select them, teachers can use two conceptual tools: taxonomy and task analysis.

  Taxonomy

This tool divides the broad selection of objectives into 3 domains:

Cognitive Domain 

This domain consists of objectives concerned with obtaining knowledge, understanding, and skill, such as teacher B’s goal. Researchers have developed Bloom’s taxonomy to classify the different student outcomes that are in the cognitive domain (Bloom, Englehart, Furst, Hill & Krathwhol, 1956) shown in Table 1 which is 

then revised by Anderson & Krathwohl (2001) shown in Table 2.

Table 2.3 Cognitive Taxonomy

Level

Description

Knowledge

Students can recognize, define, recall specific information

Comprehension

Students understand content by being able to summarize, translate, or give examples

Application

Students can solve problems and properly convey the information

Analysis

Students can break down the topic to reveal in organization and structure

Synthesis

Students can create a unique (for them) product/output using the information

Evaluation

Students can judge the value or worth of something by comparing it to predetermined criteria

Table 2.4 Cognitive Process Dimension

B ffective Domain 

Objectives of this domain is aware that school doesn’t exist simply to make students smarter as teacher C said. Schools also aim to internalize students with healthy views, moral values, and good manners (Krathwohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964)

             

C.  Psychomotor Domain 

This domain involves the development of coordination and physical skills (Harrow, 1972), which is the goal of teacher A. 

Table 2.6 Psychomotor Taxonomy

Level

Description

Reflex movements

Unconscious behavior

Basic fundamental movements

Early age behavior (e.g., grasping, walking)

Perceptual abilities

Muscular movement coordination with outside world

Physical capabilities

Strength, endurance, flexibility, agility

Skilled movements

Complex movements (e.g., skipping rope, shooting basketball)

Nondiscursive communication

Using bodies to express feelings or ideas

     Task Analysis

After you have determined your learning objective, ask “what will I show and tell my students to do so they can reach the learning objective?”

        For example, teacher D’s learning objective is for students to write simple sentences with correct punctuation, so they wrote down the skills needed to meet this objective: (1) Being able to differentiate between complete sentences and sentence fragments, (2) Knowing the difference between declarative, interrogatory, and imperative sentences, (3) Knowing whether periods, question, or exclamation marks go with each type of sentence, and (4) Correctly using these marks to punctuate different kinds of sentences. You can see that task analysis helps you break complex skills into smaller subskills that will be easier for you to teach to students. For this example, teacher D would have to firstly make students understand what sentences are, then help them understand how to punctuate the different kinds of sentences, and finally have them write and punctuate on their own.

 D Your Learning Activities: Lesson Plan

Lesson plans focus your efforts on a specific day and class, so it is commonly personalized for each teacher. It needs to be specific enough to give you structure and a solid idea on how you will proceed with your class, but also general enough to give you room to be flexible and adapt to unexpected circumstances (e.g., interruption by other teachers, unruly students, malfunctioning technology facility, students taking too long to finish their assignment).

your own, below is a description of the most important elements that must be included in a teacher’s lesson plan:

Table 2.7 Elements of a Basic Lesson Plan

Component

Description

Unit Title

Relationship between this lesson and others in the unit

Instructional Goal

Broad goal for the lesson

Learning Objective(s)

The specifics of all the things the students should learn

Lesson Material/Content

Major ideas/skills in the lesson

Learning Resources/Aids

Needed equipment and supplies

Rationale

Why the lesson is important

Learning Activities/Syntax

Learning experiences that will be conducted

Assessment Procedure

How student learning will be measured

Allocated Time

The duration of the lesson and its learning activities

The last item on the table above is perhaps the most difficult to control. Allocated time is the amount of time teachers assign to different learning activities. Depending on which activity you’d prioritize, the time allocated to specific activities can vary. To understand how you can maximize your classroom time, you must understand its 3 dimensions:

Table 2.8 Dimensions of Classroom Time

Dimension

Description

Instructional time

Time available for teachers to teach after classroom routine (e.g., greeting, praying, role call)

Engaged time

Time for students doing the learning activities

Academic learning .time

Time for students successfully doing the learning activities

There are some types of assignments you can choose for the class activity:

* Whole-class; you lecture the class as a whole and have them all participate in discussion.

*Small groups; you have students to work on assignments in groups.

* Workshops; you get students to perform various tasks simultaneously.

*Independent work; you ask students to complete their assignments individually.

* Peer learning; you ask them to work together and learn from one another.

* Contractual work; both you and your students come to an agreement of what kind of assignments students should do and what their deadline will be. 

When you choose the type of assignment, you must choose the type that would provide the most benefit for the students based on your assessment measures (Biggs, 2011). Try to ask:

~ What level of learning are my students at now?

~What level of learning do my students need to get to?

 ~ What’s the amount of time I want them to use to complete the assignment?

~ How much time and effort to grade and give feedback?

~What’s the purpose of the assignment?

~ How does the assignment fit with the rest of the lesson plan? Does its content knowledge or does it require application in a new context? 

~ Does the lesson plan fit a particular framework?

E  Your Evaluation: Assessment

You should be intimately familiar with this portion. As students, you have to participate in quizzes, do your exercises, and submit your home assignments. Now, as teachers, you are the one who will prepare and create them. Though in recent years, you may even ask your students to create their own questions and answer them on their own so the students can provoke their own knowledge.

What needs to be stressed is the alignment of your assessment with your learning objective (Hammer, 1998)

is is called instructional alignment, which is the matching of learning objectives, activities, and assessment (Anderson & Krathwohl, 2001). You can’t aim for students to be able to create an essay when your learning activities focus on isolated grammar skills. Without this alignment, it will be difficult for you and your students to understand what is being learned (Bransford et al., 2000).